A research focus on the health-related effects of racism—within healthcare and society—can help correct ethically problematic false assumptions that health disparities are either due to race as a reified biological category, or purely due to socioeconomic differences. See, for example, research by Karen D. Lincoln and David R. Williams.
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Bailey ZD, Krieger N, Agénor M, Graves J, Linos N, Bassett MT. Structural Racism and Health Inequities in the USA: Evidence and Interventions. Lancet 2017, 389:1453-1463. PMID: 28402827 doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(17)30569-X |
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Doubeni CA, Simon M, Krist AH. Addressing Systemic Racism Through Clinical Preventive Service Recommendations from the US Preventive Services Task Force. JAMA 2021, 325(7): 627–628. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.26188. |
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Evans MK, Rosenbaum L, Malina D, Morrissey S, Rubin EJ. Diagnosing and Treating Systemic Racism. NEJM 2020, 383(3): 274-276. doi: 10.1056/NEJMe2021693. Epub 2020 Jun 10. PMID: 32521155. |
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Paradies Y, Ben J, Denson N, et al. Racism as a Determinant of Health: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. PLoS One 2015;10(9):e0138511-e0138511. PMID: 26398658 doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0138511 |
| Ray R, Gostin LO. What are the Health Consequences of Systemic Racism? Milbank Quarterly Opinion. May 25, 2021. doi: 10.1599/mqop.2021.0525. |
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Rodriguez-Seijas C, Stohl M, Hasin DS, Eaton NR. Transdiagnostic Factors and Mediation of the Relationship Between Perceived Racial Discrimination and Mental Disorders. JAMA Psychiatry 2015, 72(7): 706–713. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2015.0148. |
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Versey HS, Cogburn CC, Wilkins CL, Joseph N. Appropriated Racial Oppression: Implications for Mental Health in Whites and Blacks. Social Science & Medicine 2019, 230: 295-302. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.03.014. Epub 2019 Mar 13. PMID: 31054520. |
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Stepanikova I. Racial-Ethnic Biases, Time Pressure, and Medical Decisions. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 2012, 53(3): 329-43. doi: 10.1177/0022146512445807. Epub 2012 Jul 17. PMID: 22811465. |
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Williams DR, Mohammed SA, Leavell J, Collins C. Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Health: Complexities, Ongoing Challenges, and Research Opportunities. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 2010, 1186(1): 69-101. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.05339.x. PMID: 20201869; PMCID: PMC3442603. |
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Williams DR, Neighbors H. Racism, Discrimination and Hypertension: Evidence and Needed Research. Ethnicity and Disease 2001, 11(4): 800-16. PMID: 11763305. |
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Williams DR, Williams-Morris R. Racism and mental health: the African American experience. Ethnicity & Health 2000, 5(3-4): 243-68. doi: 10.1080/713667453. PMID: 11105267. |
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These two articles present an interesting juxtaposition of evidence regarding the long-term effects of The Tuskegee Syphilis Study:
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